[Professor Chrispas Nyombi]: My inaugural lecture focuses on green transition and the future of Africa's Investment policy. Before exploring green transition, I would first explain what it means. Green transition means progression. Who has climate friendly practices in various aspects, in various economies and societies. It goes beyond climate change and it focuses on environmental sustainability.
The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change published a report in 2022. In this assessment report where it found that Africa, more than any other continent, will be affected by the ravages of climate change due to three reasons. One, its size, two is limited capacity to adapt, and number three is geographical location.
My research has explored how green transition could be achieved through the medium of investment policy. Now, when you talk about investment policy, what is wrong with this investment policy? And how can investment policy be utilised as a medium for achieving the green transition? Now, to answer that question, we need to understand what is, how did this green, how did divestment policy come about. So my lecture will go back into history then taking to the present moment, then drag you back to the future to tell you how the future should look like based on my research. So it's a research informed lecture based on what I've written.
So, the starting point. As I said, we have to go back into into the past to understand how we ended up in this position. To do that, we need to understand what is time. What does it mean by going back into the past? It is very odd for a lawyer to put a physicist as a starting point. But indeed, what Einstein would fight for is theory of special relativity pretty much sums up the challenge that African governments are facing. No time, according to Einstein, can be described. What can be accomplished can be compared to the flight of an arrow bearing us from the past to the future. It's what Shakespeare referred to as the willing of time.
Now, in our daily lives, we divide time into three elements the past, the present, and the future. The present, which basically refers to the reality we are living. The past means something which has slipped out of existence and the future being something more unknown, a shadow, a phenomenon or existence. According to Einstein's theory of special relativity, time is an illusion. So to Einstein, it past the present and the future all operating simultaneously. Let me give you an innocuous example. If someone asks you what's happening with maths currently, you wouldn't know. You wouldn't have a definite answer for two reasons. One, Earth and Mars are far apart. Number two, in other words, it takes 20 like minutes for light to cross over from Mars to reach us. So for someone on information, there is no travel faster than light. So for someone on Mars, for someone on Earth, if you ask them what's happening on Mars, there's no way they would know because that information is 20 light minutes. We don't have past for them to know what's happening on Mars from for us, for Mars, that would be their past. For us, we shall be seeing the present of what's happening on Mars.
So the what I'm trying to argue is that the treaties I'm talking about, the investment treaties that African governments have signed, those treaties are still, quote, in the past. We are living with them current in the present. And while I could find them in the future. So my argument, or what I'm trying to push to do, is to get out of that based on to starts making reforms, to start seeing the light. In other words, for me, I've seen the light. I've been in that position where I've seen the light that has flown from, from Mars, to Earth. But for them, they haven't seen it yet. So there's those 20 light minutes. They're 20 light beams behind. So I'm pushing them to see how they can, can understand this.
Now, what is the problem with these treaties? What do they do to reform these investment treaties? First of all, these treaties are based on old templates. It's a pre-colonial legacies, these treaties were signed in the 60s.
During the 1960s, we saw revolutions. We've seen pandemics. We've seen the Berlin Wall come down. We've seen so many things happen. So many things. If we've seen Donald Trump winning as, a second term. But ultimately, these treaties still remain despite all of those changes.
So my work has focused on pushing reform in this area and showing that we reform these treaties to take into consideration a number of factors. But one of them is climate change or the environment.
So what I said, we have to go back to the past to understand what it is. The starting point for me is Hugo Grotius. We have to go back to the 17th century. Hugo Grotius is renowned for me, is the grandfather of international law. Hugo Grotius was a lawyer in the Dutch East India Company. He advocated for the freedom of the seas. Which enabled the Dutch East India Company to gain the monopoly that he needed over over the seas, during that period.
Before that, we had a Spanish jurist and philosopher, Francisco Vitoria. Now to Francisco. His arguments were foreigners, aliens, should be allowed to trade and travel freely. Now to Francisco Victoria. Essentially, what he was trying to argue is that resistance should be viewed as a violation. Resistance, resisting or stopping these these individuals from trading should be seen as a violation of their self-proclaimed legal right.
Much later on, in my view, we had the father of international law Emeritus Veto. And in his magnum opus, The Law of Nations, he spoke about nations, how nations should be able to trade freely. Now his ideas, were very critical in the development of doctrines in international law that favoured colonial companies. During that period, in relation to these companies, they pursued their commercial interests as well as state ambitions, thereby blurring private and state interests.
In addition to that, there's a number of issues in how investment was carried out during that period. One of them was the relation to dispute settlement, how disputes were settled. So during that period, British, Belgian, French judges often sat in local commercial courts to resolve disputes within colonies, and those disputes, no matter, were handed unresolved in favour of colonial companies. Those companies were protected not only just by, by the courts, but also by the of the host states law. But also the military strength of the colonial power. So that's problem number one.
The second problem between the 19 and the end of the 19th century and early 20th century, we had the introduction of what we call concessions contracts. These concessions contracts contains what I call stabilisation clauses. You see them today also in treaties. They exist. They contain what we call stabilisation clauses. Now, those clauses refrained states from using these legislative or administrative prerogative in a manner that may affect the profitability of the entity or the colonial entity. So that was issue number two, the concessions contract.
And also to add to that, those concessions contracts were often for a very long period of time. The Ashanti Goldfields concessions in in Ghana, for example, which was signed in 1895 for 100 years, thereby prolonging the profitability of the colonial company.
In addition to that, or to graduate from that from from concessions contract, we ended up having investment contracts. So from concessions contract moved into investment contracts. Those investment contracts had similar provisions for what we found in concessions contracts. Now, one of them perhaps most troubling was the use of contract based arbitration as a means of resolving disputes. So in other words, within those contracts, those agreements, it was a requirement to go to arbitration if there was a dispute. This ended, this created as a result, we ended up having a system of rules being created within the international law regime to serve the interests of a few private individuals and companies. And today, this is the forerunner of what we've what what we call investor state arbitration. One of the areas I've been I've targeted my research towards, reforming.
So we have a dispute settlement mechanism that is not functioning. And yet and the third problem that we had with these agreements at that time, there was no obligation on foreign investors. They are one sided. These are colonial legacies, you know, one sided, no obligation to foreign investors. So things such as the environment, no one cared. I never considered as part of the negotiations because ultimately these were instruments that were supposed to be used to further the interests of the colonial powers.
So where did that leave the environment? It left it in our hearts, more or less. And a famous scholar, Ali Mazrui, pretty much captures it in Africa as a tribal heritage, Africanist Christianity and Islam. He talks about how the environment is deeply rooted in African culture and heritage. I used the example of the common people in Cameroon. For them, the environment, they have reserves. They have forests that have always been considered to be a key part of their culture. So they have been kept. They have not been, they preserve those forests because they consider them a key element of the society. Their culture of how they are as it as people. Also, outside of Africa, I took an example from the Japanese. That is a Japanese wedding dress called the kimono. Sorry, excuse my Japanese, but I think is kimono. Yes.
As you can see, it features a flying crane. A bat crane, which is a demonstration of who had very deep reverence and respect for the environment and nature. So despite not having any international rules or laws at the time, protect the environment. And despite investment agreements at the time, not protecting the environment, it was part of our culture.
I think one is that they started to emerge a few international agreements aimed at protecting the environment. And I think the most important one of them all is the United States, on of what we call the Boundary Waters Treaty. The reason why it's so important, because it contains a provision article four, that says water shall not be polluted. So they're talking about pollution. Something that was unthinkable before that, although it was outside of Africa. But it was a starting point.
But we also had others that talked about marine life, wildlife and so on. Imagine during that period. But the environment, no one cared about it at that point. Investment was purely for commercial, profitable gain.
Now, decolonization. The end of colonialism in Africa was a turning point for a number of reasons. One, it meant that the former colonial powers could no longer rely on their treaties. They could no longer rely on their old systems as a means of protecting investments. Number two, it meant that they had to leave, they left investments behind, those investments that needed to be protected. And without colonial treaties, they were unable to proceed on those go. And they had to come up with a system of rules.
It is a system of rules that, in my view, still called in amber that hasn't seen light yet. I'm trying to challenge now, this system of rules is what we call bilateral investment treaties. We have treaties of friendship, commerce and navigation. The ones that the US used to sign before that by visa, the ones which have lasted the longest and have been the most controversial. And bizarrely, very few people know about them, have been so many countries across Africa. And whenever we talk about bilateral investment treaties, most, most lawyers, have never heard of them.
Yet in most cases, you find that their countries have been sued for billions pertaining to those treaties, for violation of those treaties.
So the first ever bilateral investment treaty was signed between Germany and France in 1945. You have to remember that at the end of the Second World War, Europe was in ruins. Most of these colonial powers, or most of the European countries, they needed raw materials to rebuild Europe. So that's why there was in need to reach out to the other parts of the world to see how they can collaborate once again. But of course, there was resistance because most of those countries had just woken up. They just gain their political independence. So there was resistance towards European ideas.
So investment treaties was seen as the bilaterals, bilateral between two UN. But I told them this is bilateral. We sit down. We have, it's a contractual arrangement. But the only problem with this contractual arrangement, you have a superpower. The former colonial, a former colonial, a former colony being entering into, entering into an agreement with another country that may not be on the same size or same military or economic strength as it is.
So you find that the developed and the developing, entering these treaties. Only recently have we seen developing or developing and developing or developed and developed, and that is good news.
Initially it was the newly independent countries signing treaties with the developed countries. So this is the first one ever. Germany and Pakistan, 1959. That treaty still exists today. That treaty is still in force today.
Those are the protections it provides, investment. You see, neither party shall subject to this treatment. It provides one sided treatment, one sided protection. There are no obligations on foreign investors in, the obligations are only on the extent. So the host state has obligations to protect the investor. You must ask yourself, okay it's bilateral. So that means that if an investor moves from Pakistan and invests in Germany, you'll get the same protections. How many investors are moved from Pakistan? How many can afford to go and invest in Germany? Very few.
I picked out Uganda as another example. Now this is some of the treaties Uganda has signed. In 1960 Uganda, then the independence in 1962, and in 1966 they entered their first bilateral investment treaty with Germany. It is still in force up to today. From 1960. From 1966. So German investors in Uganda have protection based on this treaty that was concluded in 1966. What does it contain? The same standard protection, full protection and security. Non-discrimination, fair and equitable treatment, and so on and so forth.
All for the purposes of protecting the investor. I went into West Africa because Uganda was, so I wanted to look at every part of Africa.
The Republic of Senegal. One with, as you can see, 1962 entered one with Switzerland. And I picked out the one the UK. And you can see the type of protections that are being offered, promotion and protection of investment, most favoured nation provisions. Nothing that talks about the rights of the state not being that talks about the environment. We're talking about climate change. This should be the starting point if we want to realize climate change goes.
For North Africa, the Arab Republic of Egypt. Okay. Well, then of course, they have received a lot of cases. They have decided terminating some of their treaties, and most of them are still in force with the UK, 1975. The world has moved on since 1975. That's the protection provided one sided. But they invest. Is no regard for the environment. There's no recognition that a state has the right to regulate in its interests.
The Republic of Eswatini. So even the smallest size. In 90. And of course, 1995, with the UK, if you look at the one with the UK, same protections. So you must be asking yourself why is it the same stuff that we've seeing can't be the 100? Yes, this is supposed to be a bilateral agreement. Why is there no variation? Why are we seeing the same information from country after country. Simply because most of these countries are to follow a template, a template that was handed down to them by the powers that be, the European powers. Because that template favoured the interests of the colonial companies or their economic interests going forward.
So where has that led us? Okay. This. That's why I say that if you want to achieve climate change habits, this is one area you need to start from investment treaties. Now let's you let's look at cobalt mining in I pick the DRC, Democratic Republic of Congo.
The DRC has half of the world's cobalt reserves. Now cobalt generally issued is ubiquitous. From the phones you use to the phones you are used for points running. Like car batteries. They use cobalt airline engines. Cobalt. So it is ubiquitous. It's used almost for many things. You've used it. You're all using. Who bears the brunt is the DRC. So in the DRC, millions of trees have been cut down to make way. For cobalt mining. Since an environmental genocide, more or less, that is happening in the DRC. And the Congo basin is one of the few tropical rainforests that are left, but it's disappearing at quite an alarming rate. Simply because of cobalt mining.
So on top of destroying the environment, you can also soon, if you try to impose or if you try to bring or to to create new policies that affect their interests. There's a recent study there that I'm gonna talk about shortly, but also I'm going to give you a few questions.
On eco minerals versus Colombia, let's start from South America. Eco minerals versus Colombia 2021 case. The Colombian government passed along a several laws, basically that ended up reducing the profitability of minerals. Eco minerals was a company. It is a company that that is involved in extracting minerals, gold, silver. It is under the Colombian government. Pastel passed several laws that reduce the profitability of the company. The company sold. Saying that the Colombian government has breached its legitimate expectations. The company won.
Let's go to Europe. All right. WE a German company was in the Netherlands. Now the Netherlands passed a law in our policies to phase out the usage of coal by 2030. In line with this, Paris Agreement requirements. So they passed a law and now the use of coal by 2030. A German company sued them. Saying that one they have not been given enough time to adjust. And number two, they have not been given an alternative. Now, once said the Netherlands, is that the Netherlands went to a court in Germany. And argued that that that argued that a case that was brought against them was in conflict with EU law. Because that's an intra European bilateral investment treaty, you see that it was in conflict with EU law. And the court agreed, based on article 1032, subsection two of the German code of Civil Procedure, the court agreed.
Let's go to Africa. For mining versus the Republic of Kenya. Kenya passed several laws and one in that treaty. It was based on the UK Kenya Bilateral Investment Treaty, which was signed in 1999. Now, in that one, there was the requirement that for a valid investment to be considered to be a valid investment, you have to have undergone an environmental assessment. A company needed to have done an environmental assessment for it to be considered a valid investment. Because the company did not undertake an environmental assessment, that's what saved Republic of Kenya. So there's there are huge risks. In addition to destroying the environment, companies are bringing cases, although they are not winning yet, they are with the winning your audio, winning only a small fraction. But the chances of these cases getting much more frequent has also been captured.
In a recent study that found that over 340 billion in legal claims would be expected very soon because of changes governments are put in place to phase out oil, speed up the use of fossil fuels. So that's the past. It looks very bleak and that's it.
Now, moving from. So what's the present? The present is more or less. So when I, when I started out, I looked at this scenario. I looked at the impact. I look at these treaties, thinking okay, what can I do about this whole situation. So the first study starting point was to publish research.
So this is some of those outputs that I had to produce. Some of the publications that came out of that research to find out. How can we stop this? Where did it emanate from? What are the challenges it has created? I picked out one of them. Which was, which came out of a project that was funded by the Djibouti Chamber of Commerce. Now, in that project. We had to create. An arbitration, a mediation center for the Horn of Africa. It was led by John Day and a few other institutions, including people like myself or a parliament.
So I wrote, I did research, and I wrote a book on what I found through the Egad region that is the region, Intergovernmental Authority on Development, Kenya, so on and so forth. All of their treaties were all first generation by first generation. What I mean, there are no obligations on protecting the environment, one sided. Not state protection. The whole state had no protections in all of their treaties. So therefore, I made recommendations to these governments. That you need to reform the laws to reform your treaties.
We incorporate these modern innovations to be able to protect yourself better from foreign investors. And of course, this is a very politically sensitive area. Reason because investment and trade are key pillars for economic power. And of course, very few powerful countries would accept or be willing. Even if your country's sovereign, to enter into a bilateral investment treaty that has no effect to an extent or serve their interests in their view, in my opinion, they view the current system of bilateral investment treaties as as having their interests, but they are not serving the interests of the hosts in the developing world.
So what did I do about it? Remember the two issues that I mentioned? Issue number one, the dispute settlement mechanism. I said it was a contract based dispute settlement mechanism. Which is basically arbitration. And these are the first thing that I did. Okay, so, how, what can I do to change the dispute settlement mechanism. So one of the countries that have received the most cases in Africa is Egypt. So that was my starting point in Egypt. Where I was able to present and voice my concerns on how the system operates, which led me to the United Nations. With a few members, this is Matt. Now, my deliberations are the United Nations are well captured, one of the interesting reports. So in there I'm against the current state of play.
And one of the recommendations that I made is the creation of an African investment court, a Pan African investment court. Let's move from a very controversial idea indeed. But we can create a court system with judges instead of arbitrators, who are more likely to take into consideration African realities when making decisions. A court you then up then begins not arbitration. So that was problem number one. I tell you, the majority on set for working group number three. The United Nations is one of the options that they are considering. They are looking into a multilateral court system.
The second one was to develop modern treaties. We had model investment treaties that could be used by Africans, treaties that will help them to pull away from the old templates. As part of a team, and of course, some of my research, some of my research questions that I think this was a North Carolina general international law. So some of my research captures those ideas. So we ended up drafting a model bilateral investment treaty for African states and the African Arbitration Academy. After that, part of my work has involved the African Union.
Some of you must have heard of the African Continental Free Trade Area Agreement. So Africa came together. So let's create a continental free trade area agreement. And part of my thanks today I know it's premature, Uganda's Minister of Trade is missing because he drafted me into this project. So I was part of the Ugandan team that went negotiate the African Continental Free Trade Area agreement and the investment protocol. So what did we have in there? The investment protocol. You're right to regulate. So now a state has a right to regulate. And regulate in this national interest and put in place to stop investors from damaging the environment.
Climate change is now featuring, we are moving away from the old templates is now one of the provisions. Article 26. That investors are required to adhere to provisions or to protect the environment, taking into consideration climate change. Environmental protection. Expo 34. You must comply with principles. You must comply with the environmental impact assessments. The same thing that we saw in Kenya. It's now a requirement.
So from the United Nations, I went down to the African Union. I wouldn't sit down because it's all multilateral. I wouldn't put the African Union down. But to the African Union and from the Italian, I went back to the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. This is quite recent.
Because once we had finished negotiating the African Continental Free Trade Area and Investment Protocol, I was told by the United Nations Commission for Africa. To be the lead, to assess whether the investment protocol is green enough, has enough green provisions in it. And the final report, which was published very recently, I made it clear there is not enough greenness in there. We need to do more to protect the environment. It was watered down. And of course, what what the what the what the United Nations Commission of Africa will do.
They will go back to the African Union and tell them that when you're implementing. The African Investment Protocol, the AfCFTA investment protocol, these ensure that you follow these particular measures. They will ensure that there is green consideration in this implementation. Again, that's contributing towards achieving those climate goals.
So I went from the African Union and the United Nations. I went down to the region. Region, the East African Community. Now the East African Community, as we see us there, part of a team that negotiated the ESG investment policy, a strategy and of course, the development strategy. It it was a two week initiative. We negotiated over course of two weeks. I think you can see me right there in the middle.
So that's the Ugandan delegation that negotiated those those agreements. And even there, I wrestled was different countries had different agenda, different ideas. And one of the ideas that I put forward. Was that let's put obligations on these investors. A number of countries say no. How they measure the countries. I some of them said no. If we do that, investors are not going to come and invest, we need to attract as many investments as possible. And it's understandable. The SEC saw somehow some of the poorest countries in the world South Sudan, Burundi, Rwanda, etc..
But ultimately, because no matter voting system, I won. And what I got out of that is that and I'm content with that.
So one of the objects is to achieve a balance of rights and obligations for investors and ESG partners, states. That's better than nothing, I think. So, at least I came out with that. They have a balance of rights.
So it's no longer one sided. It's just about investment attraction, investment promotion. The rights of the state should also be protected. At national level, I went down to the Republic of, the Republic of Uganda. Bilateral investment treaties are old, old bilateral investment treaties that don't reflect the interests of the nation. So what I did through an organ, an organisation called the Uganda Investment Authority, with the goal shifted that law. And obligations under the study, investors are appearing now.
As I say this is the present moment, and I am that present moment. Recently, which was last month. I was involved in negotiating the Comesa investment area Agreement. Now, this is a private document, but it was only sent to government officials because I'm negotiating with a government. I have access to it, but it's not a public document yet because it's still a draft version.
So this is a draft version that we've come up so far. We've come up with so far, I don't see permission us with a use as part of this. And I say this is.
So this is what we have in there now. This is how far we've gone. We have environmental protection, social impact assessments being replant. So this is the evolution we've taken away from the one sided, five page bilateral investment treaties we used to see back in the days.
And my argument is going back to what Einstein was telling us about his theory of relativity. My argument is that I have I saw this light before it before first of all, I didn't buy land, but I saw that light. And I've tried to ensure that I show my fellow policymakers or Africans how on what should be done before in this area, especially to achieve in terms of achieving, climate change goals.
So what's coming up next? As you can see, my research has generally focused on policy. I'm a policymaker. I'm not very theoretical. You know, if you wanted to find any theory from what I do, I'm normally focused on practical, policy based initiatives. So one of them, focusing on the Republic of South Sudan, but in two goals.
One, in order to create impact, you need to have, you know, we know how Rref works, but we have written then, of course, from there you have to create impact. Now for South Sudan, they don't have an arbitration law. First and foremost, this is the youngest country in the world.
They receive their fourth piece earlier this year in investment arbitration. So I'm trying to see how I can assist the Republic of South Sudan to develop their laws in such a manner that protects their national interests.
I'm also trying to explore how the court system, because we the court system, although the UN is pushing different ideas, are pushing different ideas on how the system can be reformed. They haven't concluded, yet, as it were, working group number three, they are looking at different options. I'm hoping that the court system is one of the options. And of course if it's not, I'll need to keep pushing farther. I'll need to keep pushing for that to ensure that that's embedded within the African context. But even if unsuitable comes up with a court system, it won't be for Africa. It will be folk, but it won't. And I'm still arguing. I'll still I'm still continue to champion for the creation of a Pan-African system for another Pan-African court system. Instead of using contract based arbitration as the Dispute Resolution forum.
Outside of academia, I also sensitise. Especially starting from the ground, from, from the grassroots. I am the chairperson of the Arbitration Fund for African Students. Now this is a charity that was founded by Professor Emilio Anima at Souls, University of London, and she put me in charge as the chairs of that charity. And our role, as you can see, we go all over the world, is to go and teach young people on dispute settlement mechanisms, to try to create capacity, to empower them to understand how arbitration works out. ADR alternative newspaper solution. What's now enable them to go into an acute and support us eventually in driving the sort of change they want to achieve.
And I think generally my biggest contribution by far is not the treaties that negotiated. It's not the publications that I've written. It is the people who I've empowered. Now, this picture was taken by almost six years ago. Those are those were some of my PhD student. I think that's what I'm most proud of. That they've been able to carry on my legacy.
They've looked at various aspects of what I've been researching on, from investment courts to treaty provisions, even PhDs touching on various aspects of which of my research. And of course, they've also gone on to pursue careers in institutions such as the Bank of England, doctor, we have Doctor Matthew Stubbins, who's the director of law at Canterbury, another PhD student of mine, our master's in low cost director here, who's a senior lecturer. Also my for my PhD student. I can go on and on. So that's to me on to, for me, that's what I'm giving back. That's my legacy that I've been able to empower so many and to see them succeed in various aspects of life.
Are of course, my thank you note. And that. I'm going to start off by thanking the Vice Chancellor, of course, the University leadership. Most especially Professor Camille Omotosho. I have to learn this Sunday on a basic commute to manage. For his ingenuity, supports everything. And from there, of course, I also have to thank the leaders within the law school, the professors, and of course other staff members.
But on a personal note, I have so many because my work involves a lot of policy work. So I needed hand-holding. I'm going to start my thanking, most especially Professor Emilio William, Professor Emilio, I'll call her my mentor. She's best, so as we've worked and collaborated on so many things. Second of all, Uganda's Minister of Trade Frances Movers, because he gave me the opportunity to negotiate so many of those agreements I read. And, of course, Professor David Wing, I know when I was, I remember what I was doing my last year of my PhD. I reached out to this professor. I wanted to write a book. I say, no problem. The professor at Makerere University in Uganda, one of the leading from not the leading comma company lawyer that he worked with me to get my first book out, and today remains a great friend. Professor Tom Mortimer, who was my head of school in two universities. Professor Steve Tong, we work together. I clumsily detract various things for so a great friend indeed. Professor Paul Donaghy, of course. Paul and I, Paul is one of the leading investment arbitrators in Nigerian. Above all, a great friend and for so many reasons, that I have to mention, for, you don't know quite that. So I also there's so many of them, the bit from but, I can go on and on. Bishop, Eunice. Of course. Sue Jennings. She was a wonderful head of school. Just looked, I guess, for both, I think she's at Leeds. Beckett.
Now, now, Jessica. When I started out, I think I was, I was, I was undergrad, she was third year of undergraduate joint. She was a very young lecturer. And I remember high, highest grade in, in in employment law. And she took me aside and said Chrispas this is very good academic writing and we can, we can publish this. Yeah undergrad and I building I can publish for only special people publish. We sat down, I produced something and she published it. That was my first publication.
A group that dominated Professor Dominic Woods, also as Live Nation. That and so many others.
But last but not least. I've started by but also thinking family members. Some of them are no longer here. That's why I had to do, they might not only I, my family members. Let me mention some names Ruth, Betsy and Rose. And of course, Ruth, Betty and Rose. And honest we are, they all bear the same name. A very complicated name called Career civil. I mean, if you can't pronounce it. But for being wonderful. And of course, the uncles as well, for being that no siblings must also also information. So I think Mosses, Gerard and Ronald. Cardinal Ronald Cardew is a scholar, and I've written a few things with him. And of course, lastly, Isaac. And in addition to that, Elise and Florence, all of those in their now, my dedication for all of this, my dedication goes to a wonderful woman. Now, she was my first teacher, necessarily school. She was she made me will have those those early moments, those first. The starting point is very, very important. If the foundation is wrong, everything will be wrong. She laid the foundation. So it goes to my grandmother, for she is no longer here. Of course, I also have to, you know, I equal to my grandfather. There, her name again is Mary the surname is the same again. Okay, so for everything but what she stood for, for helping me to become what I am today. And I dedicate it for that wonderful individual.